administers their programs. With a staff of some 8,900 under the regular
budget, working at headquarters and all over the world, it carries out the
day-to-day work of the UN. At its head is the Secretary - General.
He plays a central role in peacemaking, both personally and through
special envoys. The Secretary - General may bring to the attention of the
Security Council any matter which appears to threaten international peace
and security. To help resolve disputes, the Secretary - General may use
"good offices" to carry out mediation, or exercise "quiet diplomacy" behind
the scenes. The Secretary - General also conducts "preventive diplomacy" to
help resolve disputes before they escalate.
In many instances, the Secretary - General has been instrumental in
securing a peace agreement or in averting a threat to peace. The current
secretary general is Kofi Annan, who succeeded Boutros Boutros Ghali in
1997 (see appendix C).
Staff members are drawn from some 170 countries.
3.2 Security Council Activity
The Security Council has primary responsibility, under the Charter,
for the maintenance of international peace and security. It is so organized
as to be able to function continuously, and a representative of each of its
members must be present at all times at United Nations Headquarters.
When a complaint concerning a threat to peace is brought before it,
the Council's first action is usually to recommend to the parties to try to
reach agreement by peaceful means. In some cases, the Council itself
undertakes investigation and mediation. It may appoint special
representatives or request the Secretary - General to do so or to use his
good offices. It may set forth principles for a peaceful settlement.
When a dispute leads to fighting, the Council's first concern is to
bring it to an end as soon as possible. It also sends United Nations peace-
keeping forces to help reduce tensions in troubled areas, keep opposing
forces apart and create conditions of calm in which peaceful settlements
may be sought. The Council may decide on enforcement measures, economic
sanctions (such as trade embargoes) or collective military action.
A member state against which preventive or enforcement action has been
taken by the Security Council may be suspended from the exercise of the
rights and privileges of membership by the General Assembly on the
recommendation of the Security Council. A member state which has
persistently violated the principles of the Charter may be expelled from
the United Nations by the Assembly on the Council's recommendation.
The presidency of the Council rotates monthly, according to the
English alphabetical listing of its member states (see appendix D).
The Council has 15 members - five permanent members and 10 elected by
the General Assembly for a two-year term.
The following countries ended their two-year membership term on
December 31, 1997:
Chile
Egypt
Guinea-Bissau
Poland
Republic of Korea
Each Council member has one vote. Decisions on procedural matters are
made by an affirmative vote of at least nine of the 15 members. Decisions
on substantive matters require nine votes, including the concurring votes
of all five permanent members. This is the rule of "great power unanimity",
often referred to as the "veto" power.
Under the Charter, all Members of the United Nations agree to accept
and carry out the decisions of the Security Council. While other organs of
the United Nations make recommendations to Governments, the Council alone
has the power to take decisions which member states are obligated under the
Charter to carry out.
Under the Charter, the functions and powers of the Security Council
are:
to maintain international peace and security in accordance with the
principles and purposes of the United Nations;
to investigate any dispute or situation which might lead to international
friction;
to recommend methods of adjusting such disputes or the terms of settlement;
to formulate plans for the establishment of a threat to peace or act of
aggression and to recommend what action should be taken;
to call on Members to apply economic sanctions and other measures not
involving the use of force to prevent or stop aggression;
to take military action against an aggressor;
to recommend the admission of new members and the terms on which states may
become parties to the Statute of the International Court of Justice;
to exercise the trusteeship functions of the United Nations in "strategic
areas":
to recommend to the General Assembly the appointment of the Secretary -
General and, together with the Assembly, to elect the Judges of the
International Court.
IV. UN ACTIVITY
4.1 UN Peace-Keeping Missions
United Nations peacekeepers, wearing distinctive UN blue helmets or
berets, are dispatched by the Security Council to help implement peace
agreements, monitor cease-fires, patrol demilitarized zones, create buffer
zones between opposing forces, and put fighting on hold while negotiators
seek peaceful solutions to disputes. But ultimately, the success of
peacekeeping depends on the consent and cooperation of the opposing
parties.
The UN does not have an army. For each peacekeeping mission, member
states voluntarily provide troops and equipment, for which they are
compensated from a special peacekeeping budget. Police officers, election
observers, human rights monitors and other civilians sometimes work
alongside military personnel in peacekeeping operations. Lightly armed for
self-defense — and often unarmed — peacekeepers’ strongest “weapon” is
their impartiality. They rely on persuasion and minimal use of force to
defuse tensions and prevent fighting. It is dangerous business;
approximately 1,500 UN peacekeepers have died in the performance of their
duties since 1945.
Rank-and-file soldiers on peacekeeping missions do not swear
allegiance to the United Nations. Governments that volunteer personnel
carefully negotiate the terms of their participation — including command
and control arrangements. They retain ultimate authority over their own
military forces serving under the UN flag, including disciplinary and
personnel matters, and may withdraw their troops if they wish. Peacekeeping
soldiers wear their own national uniforms. To identify themselves as peace-
keepers, they also wear blue berets or helmets and the UN insignia.
The cost of UN peacekeeping personnel and equipment peaked at about $3
billion in 1995, reflecting the expense of operations in the former
Yugoslavia. Peacekeeping costs fell in 1996 and 1997, to $1.4 billion and
some $1.3 billion, respectively — and estimated budgetary requirements for
1998 are expected to drop to under $1 billion.
All Member States are obligated to pay their share of peacekeeping
costs under a formula that they themselves have agreed upon. But as of 15
March 1998, member states owed the UN $1.7 billion in current and back
peacekeeping dues. The United States is by far the largest debtor, owing
$958 million.
Since 1945, there have been 48 United Nations peacekeeping operations.
There are currently 16 under way. Thirty-five peacekeeping operations were
created by the Security Council in the years between 1988 — when UN
peacekeeping operations were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize — and June 1998:
…in Africa
In Angola, UN mediation led to the 1994 peace accord and to the
installation of a government of national unity in 1997, formally uniting a
country devastated by 20 years of civil war. A UN operation is in place to
help put the peace accord into effect. The UN also continues to provide
humanitarian assistance to the Angolan people.
In Somalia, after the outbreak of civil war in 1991, the UN brought
relief to millions facing starvation and helped to stop the large-scale
killings. From 1992 to 1995, two UN operations sought to restore order,
protect delivery of humanitarian relief, promote reconciliation and help
reconstruction. Under difficult conditions, various UN agencies continue to
provide humanitarian assistance.
The UN helped secure peace in Mozambique. The UN Operation in
Mozambique (ONUMOZ) was deployed in the country in 1992 to help put into
effect the peace agreement between the Government and the Mozambican
National Resistance. ONUMOZ monitored the cease-fire, verified the
demobilization of combatants, coordinated humanitarian aid and observed in
1994 the country's first multi-party elections, which led to the peaceful
installation of a new Government. Today, the World Bank, the UN Development
Program and other parts of the UN family are working with the Government to
help forge the economic and social progress needed to underpin the
democratic process.
…in Asia
The UN helped end the 12-year conflict in Cambodia and organized the
1993 elections that led to the installation of a new Government. Earlier,
the Secretary - General had used his "good offices" in the search for
peace, helping to mediate the 1991 peace accord. The UN Transitional
Authority in Cambodia was then deployed to supervise the cease-fire between
the parties, disarm combatants, repatriate refugees, and organize and
conduct the elections.
In Afghanistan, mediation by a UN envoy led to the 1988 agreements
