Английске тексты
PRODUCTION
1. Production can be defined as the creation of wealth which in turn,
adds to society's welfare .It is a vital link in the process of satisfying
wants; As man's wants are almost unlimited relative to the resources
available, it is important in production, then, that the limited resources
be used efficiently in order to create the maximum possible welfare.
2. At a general level, all economies, irrespective of their organisation,
face the same basis decisions of what, how and for whom to produce, subject
to their production possibilities. In a mixed economy, such as the United
Kingdom, some production decisions are left to private enterprise and the
market mechanism whilst others are taken by the government: the production
by shoes for example, is the result of the decisions of private firms,
where as the quantity of hospital services or military tanks produced is
the result of political decisions.
3. The firm and its The total level of output in an economy is of
objective course, the sum of the outputs of all the individual firms.
It is important at the outset, therefore, to explain what is meant by a
firm
and to consider some of the main factors which motivates firms to produce
goods and services.
4. Definition: A, firm is a decision-making production unit which
transforms resources into goods and services which are ultimately bought by
customers, the government and other firms.
5. Traditional economic theory has assumed that the typical firm has a
single objective-to maximise its profit. No distinction is drawn between
the objective of a comer-store proprietor and that of the largest firm. The
modern theories of the firm, however, do acknowledge that firms may -have
other objectives, such as sales-revenue maximisation or the maximisation of
managerial utility.
6. Types of busi ness units. Consider now the legal status of the
differant,
types of firms in a western economy, such so the United Kingdom.
7. One-man business. In terms of numbers, the one-man business (or sole
proprietorship) is the most common type of firm. Typically it
is a small-scale operation employing the moat a handful of people. The
proprietor himself is normally in charge of the operation of the business,
with the effect that he is likely to be highly motivated as he benefits
directly from any increase in profits. As the one-man business is small it
can provide a personal service to its customers and can respond flexibly to
the requirements of the market. Decisions can be taken quickly as the owner
does not have to consult with any directors.
8. Disadvantages associated with a one-man business are that the owner
cannot specialise in particular functions but must Jack-of-all trades, and
the finance available for the expansion of the business is limited to that
which the owner himself can raise. An even bigger disadvantage is perhaps
that there is no legal distinction between the owner and his business: The
owner has, therefore, unlimited liability for any debts incurred by the
business, so that in the eventually bankruptcy all his assets (for example
his house and car) are liable to seizure.
9 One-man business as are common in retailing, fanning, building and
personal services, such as hairdressing.
10 PARTNERSHIP. The logical progression from a one-man business is to a
partnership. An ordinary partnership contains from two to twenty partners.
The main advantages over a one-man business are that more finance is likely
to be available the influx of partners, and that each partner may
specialise to some extent (for example, the marketing , production or
personnel functions). The major disadvantage, once again, is that of
unlimited liability. As each partner is able to commit the other partners
to agreements entered into, all of the others may suffer from the errors of
one unreliable or foolhardy partner.
I I Partnerships are oftcn found in the professions-for example, among
doctors, dentist, solicitors and architects, Ultimately, the upper limit on
the number of partners is likely to restrict the amount of finance
available to the partnership and so place a limit on its growth. This,
together with disadvantage of unlimited liability, means that many growing
business eventually form joint-stock companies.
12. JOINT-STOCK COMPANY, the Joint-stock company with limited liability
developed in the second halt of the nineteenth century. It helped to
promote the development of large companies by providing a relatively safe
vehicle for investment in industry and commerce by a wide cross-section of
the community. The liability of the shareholders is limited to the amount
they have subscribed to the firm capital and each shareholder knows the
extent of his potential loss it the company goes bankrupt. So make
information available to potential shareholders, all joint-stock companies
are required to file annually with the Registrar of Companies details of
their profits, turnover, assets and other relevant financial information,
such as the remuneration of the directors.
13. A joint-stock company can be either a private limited company or a
public limited company. The shares of a private cannot be offered for sale
to the public and thus are not traded on the Stock Exchange .The shares
cannot be transferred without the consent of the other shareholders.
Private companies require a minimum of two and a maximum of fifty
shareholders (or members), though the upper limit may be exceeded in the
case of employees or former employees of the company.
14. The shares of a PUBLIC company can be offered for sale to the public.
A public company requires as minimum of two shareholders, but there is no
upper limit. Shares are freely transferable and the company is required to
hold an annual general meeting where shareholders are able to question the
directors, to change the company's articles of association, to elect or
dismiss the board of directors, to sanction the payment of dividends, to
approve the choice auditors
and to fix their remuneration. In practice, attendance at annual general
meetings is low, and normally the approval of the director's
recommendations is a formality.
15. Although only about 3% of companies are public companies, most large
companies are public companies. Indeed, they account for about two-thirds
of the capital employed by all companies.
16. CO-OPERATIVES. In the'United Kingdom consumer co-operatives have been
successful since the first co-operative was formed at Rochdale in 1844. The
movement, which comprises a familiar section of the retail trade, is based
on consumer ownership and control, al-though there is a professional
management. In 1985 it was reported that there were 8,5 members of retail
cooperative societies in the United Kingdom.
17. Producer co-operatives, on, the other hand, have not generally been
successful and are not particularly significant in the United Kingdom. The
recession of the early 1980s, however, led to an upsurge in the number of
producer co-operatives. In many cases they sprang from on attempt by
workers to continue production and to maintain jobs after a parent company
had decided to close or to sell a plant. This type of co-operative is
sometimes referred to as "phoenix co-operative". The Co-operative
Development of producer cooperatives reported the existence of 911 producer
co-operatives with around 20000 members in 1984. In some other countries of
the EEC, such as France and Spain, producer co-operatives are of more
significance than in the United Kingdom.
18. PUBLIC CORPORATION. The public corporation is the form of enterprise
that has developed in the United Kingdom for those areas where the
government has decided to place production in the hands of the state.
Whilst there are early examples of the formation of public corporation,
such as the Port of London Authority (1909) and the British Broadcasting
Corporation (1927),Boat were formed in the period of the post-war Labour
government of 1945-51. The
27
government appoints the chairman and the board of directors which is
responsible to a minister of the Crown for full filing the statutory
requirements for the public corporation aid down by Parliament. The
minister is supposed not to concern himself with the day-to-day running the
company.
19. Recent government policy has been to return state-owned enterprises to
the private sector. Privatisation is the word used when the ownership of a
state-owned asset is transferred to private individuals or companies.
20. Examples of privatisation include the sale of British Aerospace (51%
sold in 1981 and 49% 1985) and of British Telecom (51% sold in 1984).
Effective Communication
Effective communication is absolutely crucial to good management. You can't
get the best out of people unless you can communicate effectively with
them, and they with you.
It seems easy enough. All you have to do is to tell your subordinate what
you want him to do, and he gate on with it. A few words of encouragement or
criticism nay be needed, but that's all there is to it. If only it were so
simple. The manager has to consider three forms of communication , any of
which can cause him problems if he is not careful. They are:
• oral
• written
• non-verbal communication.
Oral communication
Speaking directly to someone in person, by telephone or via a television
link is the most common form of human communication. Oral communication is
instantaneous, allows great flexibility, and permits sentiment to be
combined with an intellectual message without difficulty. Effective oral
communication depends on a number of factors which can't always be taken
for granted. These are:
• language
• the style used
• the supporting signals
Language
If a manager was asked to take charge of a group of Chinese workers he
