by law and not subject to influence. In foreign affairs, presidents must
conform with treaties and informal agreements negotiated by their
predecessors.
The happy euphoria of the post-election "honeymoon" quickly dissipates,
and the new president discovers that Congress has become less cooperative
and the media more critical. The president is forced to build at least
temporary alliances among diverse, often antagonistic interests—economic,
geographic, ethnic and ideological. Compromises with Congress must be
struck if any legislation is to be adopted. "It is very easy to defeat a
bill in Congress," lamented President John F. Kennedy. "It is much more
difficult to pass one."
Despite these burdensome constraints, few presidents have turned down
the chance to run for a second term of office. Every president achieves at
least some of his legislative goals and prevents by veto the enactment of
other laws he believes not to be in the nation's best interests. The
president's authority in the conduct of war and peace, including the
negotiation of treaties, is substantial. Moreover, the president can use
his unique position to articulate ideas and advocate policies, which then
have a better chance of entering the public consciousness than those held
by his political rivals. When a president raises an issue, it inevitably
becomes subject to public debate. A president's power and influence may be
limited, but they are also greater than those of any other American, in or
out of office.
THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENTS
The day-to-day enforcement and administration of federal laws is in the
hands of the various executive departments, created by Congress to deal
with specific areas of national and international affairs. The heads of the
departments, chosen by the president and approved by the Senate, form a
council of advisers generally known as the president's "Cabinet." In
addition to 14 departments, there are a number of staff organizations
grouped into the Executive Office of the President. These include the White
House staff, the National Security Council, the Office of Management and
Budget, the Council of Economic Advisers, the Office of the U.S. Trade
Representative, and the Office of Science and Technology.
The Constitution makes no provision for a presidential Cabinet. It
does provide that the president may ask opinions, in writing, from the
principal officer in each of the executive departments on any subject in
their area of responsibility, but it does not name the departments nor
describe their duties. Similarly, there are no specific constitutional
qualifications for service in the Cabinet.
The Cabinet developed outside the Constitution as a matter of
practical necessity, for even in George Washington's day it was an absolute
impossibility for the president to discharge his duties without advice and
assistance. Cabinets are what any particular president makes them. Some
presidents have relied heavily on them for advice, others lightly, and some
few have largely ignored them. Whether or not Cabinet members act as
advisers, they retain the responsibility for directing the activities of
the government in specific areas of concern.
Each department has thousands of employees, with offices throughout the
country as well as in Washington. The departments are divided into
divisions, bureaus, offices and services, each with specific duties.
|THE CABINET |
|(All departments are headed by a secretary, except the Justice Department, |
|which is headed by the attorney general.) |
|THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE: |Created in 1862 |
|THE DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE: |Created in 1903. The Department of |
| |Commerce and Labor split into two |
| |separate departments in 1913. |
|THE DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE: |Amalgamated in 1947. The Department of |
| |Defense was established by combining, |
| |the Department of War (established in |
| |1789), the Department of the Navy |
| |(established in 1798) and the |
| |Department of the Air Force |
| |(established in 1947). Although the |
| |secretary of defense is a member of the|
| |Cabinet, the secretaries of the Army, |
| |Navy and Air Force are not. |
|THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION: |Created in 1979. Formerly part of the |
| |Department of Health, Education and |
| |Welfare. |
|THE DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY: |Created in 1977. |
|THE DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN |Created in 1979, when the Department of|
|SERVICES: |Health, Education and Welfare (created |
| |in 1953) was split into separate |
| |entities. |
|THE DEPARTMENT OF HOUSING AND URBAN|Created in 1965. |
|DEVELOPMENT: | |
|THE DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR: |Created in 1849 |
|THE DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE: |Created in 1870. Between 1789 and 1870,|
| |the attorney general was a member of |
| |the Cabinet, but not the head of a |
| |department. |
|THE DEPARTMENT OF LABOR: |Created in 1913 |
|THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE: |Created in 1789. |
|THE DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION: |Created in 1966. |
|THE DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY: |Created in 1789 |
|THE DEPARTMENT OF VETERANS AFFAIRS:|Created in 1988. Formerly the Veterans |
| |Administration, now elevated to Cabinet|
| |level |
DEPARTAMENT OF AGRICULTURE
The Department of Agriculture (USDA) supervises agricultural production to
ensure fair prices and stable markets for producers and consumers, works to
improve and maintain farm income, and helps to develop and expand markets
abroad for agricultural products. The department attempts to curb poverty,
hunger and malnutrition by issuing food stamps to the poor; sponsoring
educational programs on nutrition; and administering other food assistance
programs, primarily for children, expectant mothers and the elderly. It
maintains production capacity by helping landowners protect the soil,
water, forests and other natural resources. USDA administers rural
development, credit and conservation programs that are designed to
implement national growth policies, and conducts scientific and
technological research in all areas of agriculture. Through its inspection
and grading services, USDA ensures standards of quality in food offered for
sale. The department also promotes agricultural research by maintaining the
National Agricultural Library, the second largest government library in the
world. (The U.S. Library of Congress is first.) The USDA Foreign
Agricultural Service (FAS) serves as an export promotion and service agency
for U.S. agriculture, employing specialists abroad who make surveys of
foreign agriculture for U.S. farm and business interests. The U.S. Forest
Service, also part of the department, administers an extensive network of
national forests and wilderness areas.
DEPARTAMENT OF COMMERCE
The Department of Commerce serves to promote the nation's international
trade, economic growth and technological advancement. It offers assistance
and information to increase America's competitiveness in the world economy;
administers programs to prevent unfair foreign trade competition; and
provides social and economic statistics and analyses for business and
government planners. The department comprises a diverse array of agencies.
The National Bureau of Standards, for example, conducts scientific and
technical research, and maintains physical measurement systems for industry
and government. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA),
which includes the National Weather Service, works to improve understanding
of the physical environment and oceanic resources. The Patent and Trademark
Office grants patents and registers trademarks. The department also
conducts research and develops policy on telecommunications; promotes
domestic economic development and foreign travel to the United States; and
assists in the growth of businesses owned and operated by minorities.
DEPARTAMENT OF DEFENCE
Headquartered in the Pentagon, the "world's largest office building," the
Department of Defense (DOD) is responsible for all matters relating to the
nation's military security. It provides the military forces of the United
States, which consist of about two million men and women on active duty.
They are backed, in case of emergency, by 2.5 million members of state
reserve components, known as the National Guard. In addition, about one
million civilian employees serve in the Defense Department in such areas as
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