research, intelligence communications, mapping and international security
affairs. The National Security Agency (NSA) also comes under the direction
of the secretary of defense. The department directs the separately
organized military departments of the Army, Navy, Marine Corps and Air
Force, as well as each service academy and the National War College, the
Joint Chiefs of Staff and several specialized combat commands. DOD
maintains forces overseas to meet treaty commitments, to protect the
nation's outlying territories and commerce, and to provide air combat and
support forces. Nonmilitary responsibilities include flood control,
development of oceanographic resources and management of oil reserves.
DEPARTAMENT OF EDUCATION
The Department of Education absorbed most of the education programs
previously conducted by the Department of Health, Education and Welfare, as
well as programs that had been handled by six other agencies. The
department establishes policy for and administers more than 150 federal aid-
to-education programs, including student loan programs, programs for
migrant workers, vocational programs, and special programs for the
handicapped. The Department of Education also partially supports the
American Printing House for the Blind; Gallaudet University, established to
provide a liberal higher education for deaf persons; the National Technical
Institute for the Deaf, part of the Rochester (New York) Institute of
Technology, designed to educate deaf students within a college campus, but
planned primarily for hearing students; and Howard University in
Washington, D.C., a comprehensive university which accepts students of all
races, but concentrates on educating black Americans.
DEPARTAMENT OF ENERGY
Growing concern with the nation's energy problems in the 1970s prompted
Congress to create the Department of Energy (DOE). The department took over
the functions of several government agencies already engaged in the energy
field. Staff offices within the DOE are responsible for the research,
development and demonstration of energy technology; energy conservation;
civilian and military use of nuclear energy; regulation of energy
production and use; pricing and allocation of oil;
and a central energy data collection and analysis program. The department
protects the nation's environment by setting standards to minimize the
harmful effects of energy production. For example, DOE conducts
environmental and health-related research, such as studies of energy-
related pollutants and their effects on biological systems.
DEPARTAMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES
The Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) probably directly touches
the lives of more Americans than any other federal agency. Its largest
component, the Social Security Administration, pools contributions from
employers and employees to pay benefits to workers and their families who
have retired, died or become disabled. Social Security contributions help
pay medical bills for those 65 years and older as well, under a program
called Medicare. Through a separate program, called Medicaid, HHS provides
grants to states to help pay the medical costs of the poor. HHS also
administers a network of medical research facilities through the National
Institutes of Health, and the Alcohol, Drug Abuse and Mental Health
Administration. Other HHS agencies ensure the safety and effectiveness of
the nation's food supply and drugs, work to prevent outbreaks of
communicable diseases, and provide health services to the nation's American
Indian and native Alaskan populations. In cooperation with the states, HHS
operates the principal federal welfare program for the poor, called Aid to
Families with Dependent Children (AFDC)
DEPARTMENT OF HOUSING AND URBAN DEVELOPMENT
The Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) manages programs that
assist community development and help provide affordable housing for the
nation. Fair housing laws, administered by HUD, are designed to ensure that
individuals and families can buy a dwelling without being subjected to
housing discrimination. HUD directs mortgage insurance programs that help
families become homeowners, and a rent-subsidy program for low-income
families who otherwise could not afford decent housing. In addition, it
operates programs that aid neighborhood rehabilitation, preserve urban
centers from blight and encourage the development of new communities. HUD
also protects the home buyer in the marketplace and fosters programs to
stimulate the housing industry.
DEPARTMENT OFTHE INTERIOR
As the nation's principal conservation agency, the Department of the
Interior has responsibility for most of the federally owned public lands
and natural resources in the United States. The Fish and Wildlife Service,
for example, administers 442 wildlife refuges, 150 waterfowl production
areas, and a network of wildlife laboratories and fish hatcheries. The
National Park Service administers more than 340 national parks and scenic
monuments, riverways, seashores, recreation areas and historic sites.
Through the Bureau of Land Management, the department oversees the land and
resources—from timber and grazing to oil production and recreation—on
millions of hectares of public land located primarily in the West. The
Bureau of Reclamation manages scarce water resources in the semiarid
western United States. The department regulates mining in the United
States, assesses mineral resources, and has major responsibility for
American Indians living on reservations. Internationally, the department
administers programs in U.S. territories such as the Virgin Islands, Guam,
American Samoa, the Northern Mariana Islands and Palau, and provides
funding for development to the Marshall Islands and the Federated States of
Micronesia.
DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE
The attorney general, the chief law officer of the federal government, is
in charge of the Department of Justice. The department represents the U.S.
government in legal matters and courts of law, and renders legal advice and
opinions, upon request, to the president and to the heads of the executive
departments. Its Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) is the principle law
enforcement body, and its Immigration and Naturalization Service
administers immigration laws. A major agency within the department is the
Drug Enforcement Administration, (DEA), which administers narcotics and
controlled substances laws, and tracks down major illicit drug trafficking
organizations. The Justice Department also gives aid to local police
forces. In addition, the department directs U.S. district attorneys and
marshals throughout the country, supervises federal prisons and other penal
institutions, and investigates and reports to the president on petitions
for paroles and pardons. The Justice Department is also linked to INTERPOL,
the International Criminal Police Organization, charged with promoting
mutual assistance between law enforcement agencies in 146 countries.
DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
The Department of Labor promotes the welfare of wage earners in the United
States, helps improve working conditions and fosters good relations between
labor and management. It administers more than 130 federal labor laws
through such agencies as the Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA), the Employment Standards Administration and the Mine Safety and
Health Administration. Among its responsibilities are: guaranteeing
workers' rights to safe and healthy working conditions; establishing
minimum hourly wages and overtime pay; prohibiting employment
discrimination; and providing for unemployment insurance and compensation
for on-the-job injury. It also protects workers' pension rights, sponsors
job training programs and helps workers find jobs. Its Bureau of Labor
Statistics monitors and reports changes in employment, prices and other
national economic measurements. For job seekers, the department makes
special efforts to help older workers, youths, minorities, women and the
handicapped.
DEPARTAMENT OF STATE
The Department of State advises the president, who has overall
responsibility for formulating and executing the foreign policy of the
United States. The department assesses American overseas interests, makes
recommendations on policy and future action, and takes necessary steps to
carry out established policy. It maintains contacts and relations between
the United States and foreign countries, advises the president on
recognition of new foreign countries and governments, negotiates treaties
and agreements with foreign nations, and speaks for the United States in
the United Nations and in more than 50 other major international
organizations. As-of 1988, the department supervised 141 embassies and 113
missions or consulates in foreign nations.
DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION
The Department of Transportation (DOT) was created in 1966 by consolidating
land, sea and air transportation functions scattered thoughout eight
separate departments and agencies. DOT establishes the nation's overall
transportation policy through nine operating units that encompass highway
planning, development and construction; urban mass transit; railroads;
civilian aviation; and the safety of waterways, ports, highways, and oil
and gas pipelines. For example, the Federal Aviation Administration
operates more than 350 air traffic control facilities across the country;
the Federal Highway Administration is responsible for the 68,000-kilometer
interstate highway system; the National Highway Traffic Safety
Administration establishes safety and fuel economy standards for motor
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