of Charles's brother James and was mother of Queens Mary and Anne). As a
scapegoat for the difficult religious settlement and the Dutch war,
Clarendon had failed to build a 'Court interest' in the Commons. He was
succeeded by a series of ministerial combinations, the first of which was
that of Clifford, Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington and Lauderdale (whose
initials formed the nickname Cabal). Such combinations (except for Danby's
dominance of Parliament from 1673 to 1679) were largely kept in balance by
Charles for the rest of his reign.
Charles's foreign policy was a wavering balance of alliances with France
and the Dutch in turn. In 1670, Charles signed the secret treaty of Dover
under which Charles would declare himself a Catholic and England would side
with France against the Dutch - in return Charles would receive subsidies
from the King of France (thus enabling Charles some limited room for
manoeuvre with Parliament, but leaving the possibility of public disclosure
of the treaty by Louis). Practical considerations prevented such a public
conversion, but Charles issued a Declaration of Indulgence, using his
prerogative powers to suspend the penal laws against Catholics and
Nonconformists. In the face of an Anglican Parliament's opposition, Charles
was eventually forced to withdraw the Declaration in 1673.
In 1677 Charles married his niece Mary to William of Orange partly to
restore the balance after his brother's second marriage to the Catholic
Mary of Modena and to re-establish his own Protestant credentials. This
assumed a greater importance as it became clear that Charles's marriage to
Catherine of Braganza would produce no legitimate heirs (although Charles
had a number of mistresses and illegitimate children), and his Roman
Catholic brother James's position as heir apparent raised the prospect of a
Catholic king.
Throughout Charles's reign, religious toleration dominated the political
scene. The 1662 Act of Uniformity had imposed the use of the Book of Common
Prayer, and insisted that clergy subscribe to Anglican doctrine (some 1,000
clergy lost their livings). Anti-Catholicism was widespread; the Test Act
of 1673 excluded Roman Catholics from both Houses of Parliament.
Parliament's reaction to the Popish Plot of 1678 (an allegation by Titus
Oates that Jesuit priests were conspiring to murder the King, and involving
the Queen and the Lord Treasurer, Danby) was to impeach Danby and present a
Bill to exclude James (Charles's younger brother and a Roman Catholic
convert) from the succession. In 1680/81 Charles dissolved three
Parliaments which had all tried to introduce Exclusion Bills on the basis
that 'we are not like to have a good end'.
Charles sponsored the founding of the Royal Society in 1660 (still in
existence today) to promote scientific research. Charles also encouraged a
rebuilding programme, particularly in the last years of his reign, which
included extensive rebuilding at Windsor Castle, a huge but uncompleted new
palace at Winchester and the Greenwich Observatory. Charles was a patron of
Christopher Wren in the design and rebuilding of St Paul's Cathedral,
Chelsea Hospital (a refuge for old war veterans) and other London
buildings.
Charles died in 1685, becoming a Roman Catholic on his deathbed.
JAMES II (1685-88)
Born in 1633 and named after his grandfather James I, James II grew up in
exile after the Civil War (he served in the armies of Louis XIV) and, after
his brother's restoration, commanded the Royal Navy from 1660 to 1673.
James converted to Catholicism in 1669. Despite his conversion, James II
succeeded to the throne peacefully at the age of 51. His position was a
strong one - there were standing armies of nearly 20,000 men in his
kingdoms and he had a revenue of around Ј2 million. Within days of his
succession, James announced the summoning of Parliament in May but he
sounded a warning note: 'the best way to engage me to meet you often is
always to use me well'. A rebellion led by Charles's illegitimate son, the
Duke of Monmouth, was easily crushed after the battle of Sedgemoor in 1685,
and savage punishments were imposed by the infamous Lord Chief Justice,
Judge Jeffreys, at the 'Bloody Assizes'.
James's reaction to the Monmouth rebellion was to plan the increase of
the standing army and the appointment of loyal and experienced Roman
Catholic officers. This, together with James's attempts to give civic
equality to Roman Catholic and Protestant dissenters, led to conflict with
Parliament, as it was seen as James showing favouritism towards Roman
Catholics. Fear of Catholicism was widespread (in 1685, Louis XIV revoked
the Edict of Nantes which gave protection to French Protestants), and the
possibility of a standing army led by Roman Catholic officers produced
protest in Parliament. As a result, James prorogued Parliament in 1685 and
ruled without it.
James attempted to promote the Roman Catholic cause by dismissing judges
and Lord Lieutenants who refused to support the withdrawal of laws
penalising religious dissidents, appointing Catholics to important academic
posts, and to senior military and political positions. Within three years,
the majority of James's subjects had been alienated.
In 1687 James issued the Declaration of Indulgence aiming at religious
toleration; seven bishops who asked James to reconsider were charged with
seditious libel, but later acquitted to popular Anglican acclaim. When his
second (Roman Catholic) wife, Mary of Modena, gave birth on 10 June 1688 to
a son (James Stuart, later known as the 'Old Pretender' and father of
Charles Edward Stuart, 'Bonnie Prince Charlie'), it seemed that a Roman
Catholic dynasty would be established. William of Orange, Protestant
husband of James's elder daughter, Mary (by James's first and Protestant
wife, Anne Hyde), was therefore welcomed when he invaded on 5 November
1688. The Army and the Navy (disaffected despite James's investment in
them) deserted to William, and James fled to France.
James's attempt to regain the throne by taking a French army to Ireland
failed - he was defeated at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690. James spent
the rest of his life in exile in France, dying there in 1701.
WILLIAM III (1689-1702) AND MARY II (1689-94)
In 1689 Parliament declared that James had abdicated by deserting his
kingdom. William (reigned 1689-1702) and Mary (reigned 1689-94) were
offered the throne as joint monarchs. They accepted a Declaration of Rights
(later a Bill), drawn up by a Convention of Parliament, which limited the
Sovereign's power, reaffirmed Parliament's claim to control taxation and
legislation, and provided guarantees against the abuses of power which
James II and the other Stuart Kings had committed. The exclusion of James
II and his heirs was extended to exclude all Catholics from the throne,
since 'it hath been found by experience that it is inconsistent with the
safety and welfare of this protestant kingdom to be governed by a papist
prince'. The Sovereign was required in his coronation oath to swear to
maintain the Protestant religion.
The Bill was designed to ensure Parliament could function free from royal
interference. The Sovereign was forbidden from suspending or dispensing
with laws passed by Parliament, or imposing taxes without Parliamentary
consent. The Sovereign was not allowed to interfere with elections or
freedom of speech, and proceedings in Parliament were not to be questioned
in the courts or in any body outside Parliament itself. (This was the basis
of modern parliamentary privilege.) The Sovereign was required to summon
Parliament frequently (the Triennial Act of 1694 reinforced this by
requiring the regular summoning of Parliaments). Parliament tightened
control over the King's expenditure; the financial settlement reached with
William and Mary deliberately made them dependent upon Parliament, as one
Member of Parliament said, 'when princes have not needed money they have
not needed us'. Finally the King was forbidden to maintain a standing army
in time of peace without Parliament's consent.
The Bill of Rights added further defences of individual rights. The King
was forbidden to establish his own courts or to act as a judge himself, and
the courts were forbidden to impose excessive bail or fines, or cruel and
unusual punishments. However, the Sovereign could still summon and dissolve
Parliament, appoint and dismiss Ministers, veto legislation and declare
war.
The so-called 'Glorious Revolution' has been much debated over the degree
to which it was conservative or radical in character. The result was a
permanent shift in power; although the monarchy remained of central
importance, Parliament had become a permanent feature of political life.
The Toleration Act of 1689 gave all non-conformists except Roman
Catholics freedom of worship, thus rewarding Protestant dissenters for
their refusal to side with James II.
After 1688 there was a rapid development of party, as parliamentary
sessions lengthened and the Triennial Act ensured frequent general
elections. Although the Tories had fully supported the Revolution, it was
the Whigs (traditional critics of the monarchy) who supported William and
consolidated their position. Recognising the advisability of selecting a
Ministry from the political party with the majority in the House of
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