"Ironside", he defeated the Danish forces at Oxford, Kent, but was routed
by Canute's forces at Ashingdon, Essex. A subsequent peace agreement was
made, with Edmund controlling Wessex and Canute controlling Mercia and
Northumbria. It was also agreed that whoever survived the other would take
control of the whole realm. Unfortunately for Edmund, he died in November,
1016, transferring the Kingship of All England completely to Canute.
CANUTE «THE GREAT» (1016-1035)
Son of Sweyn, Canute became undisputed King of England in 1016, and his
rivals (Ethelred's surviving sons and Edmund's son) fled abroad. In 1018,
the last Danegeld of 82,500 pounds was paid to Canute. Ruthless but
capable, Canute consolidated his position by marrying Ethelred's widow Emma
(Canute's first English partner - the Church did not recognise her as his
wife - was set aside, later appointed regent of Norway). During his reign,
Canute also became King of Denmark and Norway; his inheritance and
formidable personality combined to make him overlord of a huge northern
empire.
During his inevitable absences in Scandinavia, Canute used powerful English
and Danish earls to assist in England's government - English law and
methods of government remained unchanged.
A second-generation Christian for reasons of politics as well as faith,
Canute went on pilgrimage to Rome in 1027-8. (It was allegedly Christian
humility which made him reject his courtiers' flattery by demonstrating
that even he could not stop the waves; later hostile chroniclers were to
claim it showed madness.)
Canute was buried at Winchester. Given that there was no political or
governmental unity within his empire, it failed to survive owing to discord
between his sons by two different queens - Harold Harefoot (reigned 1035-
40) and Harthacnut (reigned 1040-42) - and the factions led by the semi-
independent Earls of Northumbria, Mercia and Wessex.
HAROLD HAREFOOT (1035-1040)
Harold Harefoot was the son of Canute and his first wife, Elfgifu. The
brothers began by sharing the kingdom of England after their father's death
- Harold Harefoot becoming king in Mercia and Northumbria, and Harthacanute
king of Wessex. During the absence of Hardicanute in Denmark, his other
kingdom, Harold Harefoot became effective sole ruler. On his death in 1040,
the kingdom of England fell to Hardicanute alone.
HARDICANUTE (1035-1042)
Harthacnut was the son of Canute and his second wife, Emma, the widow of
Ethelred II. His father intended Hardicanute to become king of the English
in preference to his elder brother Harold Harefoot, but he nearly lost his
chance of this when he became preoccupied with affairs in Denmark, of which
he was also king. Instead, Canute's eldest son, Harold Harefoot, became
king of England as a whole. In 1039 Hardicanute eventually set sail for
England, arriving to find his brother dead and himself king.
EDWARD III, THE CONFESSOR (1042-66 AD)
The penultimate Anglo-Saxon king, Edward was the oldest son of Жthelred
II and Emma. He had gone to Normandy in 1013, when his father and mother
had fled from England. He stayed there during the reign of Canute and, at
his death in 1035, led an abortive attempt to capture the crown for
himself. He was recalled, for some reason, to the court of Hardicanute, his
half-brother.
Canute had placed the local control of the shires into the hands of
several powerful earls: Leofric of Mercia (Lady Godiva's husband), Siward
of Northumbria and Godwin of Wessex, the most formidable of all. Through
Godwin's influence, Edward took the throne at the untimely death of
Hardicanute in 1042. In 1045, he married Godwin's only daughter, Edith.
Resulting from the connections made during Edward's years in Normandy, he
surrounded himself with his Norman favorites and was unduly influenced by
them. This Norman "affinity" produced great displeasure among the Saxon
nobles. The anti-Norman faction was led by (who else?) Godwin of Wessex and
his son, Harold Godwinsson, took every available opportunity to undermine
the kings favorites. Edward sought to revenge himself on Godwin by
insulting his own wife and Godwin's daughter, Edith, and confining her to
the monastery of Wherwell. Disputes also arose over the issue of royal
patronage and Edward's inclination to reward his Norman friends.
A Norman, Robert Champart, who had been Bishop of London, was made
Archbishop of Canterbury by Edward in 1051, a promotion that displeased
Godwin immensely. The Godwins were banished from the kingdom after staging
an unsuccessful rebellion against the king but returned, landing an
invasionary force in the south of England in 1052. They received great
popular support, and in the face of this, the king was forced to restore
the Godwins to favor in 1053.
Edward's greatest achievement was the construction of a new cathedral,
where virtually all English monarchs from William the Conqueror onward
would be crowned. It was determined that the minster should not be built in
London, and so a place was found to the west of the city (hence
"Westminster"). The new church was consecrated at Christmas, 1065, but
Edward could not attend due to illness.
On his deathbed, Edward named Harold as his successor, instead of the
legitimate heir, his grandson, Edgar the Жtheling. The question of
succession had been an issue for some years and remained unsettled at
Edward's death in January, 1066. It was neatly resolved, however, by
William the Conqueror, just nine months later.
There is some question as to what kind of person Edward was. After his
death, he was the object of a religious cult and was canonized in 1161, but
that could be viewed as a strictly political move. Some say, probably
correctly, that he was a weak, but violent man and that his reputation for
saintliness was overstated, possibly a sham perpetrated by the monks of
Westminster in the twelfth century. Others seem to think that he was deeply
religious man and a patient and peaceable ruler.
HAROLD II (1066)
On Edward's death, the King's Council (the Witenagemot) confirmed
Edward's brother-in-law Harold, Earl of Wessex, as King. With no royal
blood, and fearing rival claims from William Duke of Normandy and the King
of Norway, Harold had himself crowned in Westminster Abbey on 6 January
1066, the day after Edward's death. During his brief reign, Harold showed
he was an outstanding commander.
In September, Harald Hardrada of Norway (aided by Harold's alienated
brother Tostig, Earl of Northumbria) invaded England and was defeated by
Harold at the Battle of Stamford Bridge near York. Hardrada's army had
invaded using over 300 ships; so many were killed that only 25 ships were
needed to transport the survivors home.
Meanwhile, William, Duke of Normandy (who claimed that Harold had
acknowledged him in 1064 as Edward's successor) had landed in Sussex.
Harold rushed south and, on 14 October 1066, his army of some 7,000
infantry was defeated on the field of Senlac near Hastings. Harold was hit
in the eye by an arrow and cut down by Norman swords.
An abbey was later built, in 1070, to fulfil a vow made by William I, and
its high altar was placed on the spot where Harold fell. The ruins of
Battle Abbey still remain with a stone slab marking where Harold died.
THE NORMANS
The Normans came to govern as a result of one of the most famous battles
in English history, the Battle of Hastings in 1066. From 1066 to 1154 four
kings ruled. The Domesday Book, that great source of English landholding,
was published, the forests were extended, the Exchequer was founded and a
start was made on the Tower of London. In religious affairs, the Gregorian
reform movement gathered pace and forced concessions, while the machinery
of government developed to support the country while Henry was fighting
abroad. Meanwhile, the social landscape was altered, as the Norman
aristocracy came to prominence. Many of the nobles struggled to keep a hold
on both Normandy and England, as divided rule meant the threat of conflict.
This was the case when William the Conqueror died. His eldest son,
Robert, became Duke of Normandy, while the next youngest, William, became
king of England. Their younger brother Henry would become king on William
II's death. The uneasy divide continued until Henry captured and imprisoned
his elder brother.
The question of the succession continued to weigh heavily over the
remainder of the period. Henry's son died, and his nominated heir Matilda
was denied the throne by her cousin, Henry's nephew, Stephen. There then
followed a period of civil war. Matilda married Geoffrey Plantagenet of
Anjou, who took control of Normandy. The duchy was therefore separated from
England once again.
A compromise was eventually reached whereby the son of Matilda and
Geoffrey would be heir to the English crown, while Stephen's son would
inherit his baronial lands. All this meant that in 1154 Henry II would
ascend to the throne as the first undisputed King in over 100 years - proof
of the dynastic uncertainty of the Norman period.
THE CONTINENTAL DYNASTIES
1066 - 1216
HAROLD BLUETOOTH,
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