without reserve. Some linguists consider it necessary to define the term
productivity of a word-building means more accurately. They hold the view
that productive ways and means of word-formation are only those that can be
used for the formation of an unlimited number of new words in the modern
language, i.e. such means that “know no bounds” and easily form occasional
words. This divergence of opinion is responsible for the difference in the
lists of derivational affixes considered productive in various books on
English lexicology.
Nevertheless, recent investigations seem to prove that productivity of
derivational means is relative in many respects. Moreover there are no
absolutely productive means; derivational patterns and derivational affixes
possess different degrees of productivity. Therefore it is important that
conditions favouring productivity and the degree if productivity of a
particular pattern or affix should be established. All derivational
patterns experience both structural and semantic constraints. The fewer are
the constraints, the higher is the degree of productivity, the greater is
the number of new words built on it. The two general constraints imposed on
all derivational patterns are: the part of speech in which the pattern
functions and the meaning attached to it which conveys the regular semantic
correlation between the two classes of words. It follows that each part of
speech is characterized by a set of productive derivational patterns
peculiar to it. Three degrees of productivity are distinguished for
derivational patterns and individual derivational affixes: (1) highly
productive, (2) productive or semi-productive and (3) non-productive.
R. S. Ginzburg[21] says that productivity of derivational patterns and
affixes should not be identified with the frequency of occurrence in
speech, although there may be some interrelation between then. Frequency of
occurrence is characterized by the fact that a great number of words
containing a given derivational affix are often used in speech, in
particular in various texts. Productivity is characterized by the ability
of a given suffix to make new words.
In linguistic literature there is another interpretation of derivational
productivity based on a quantitative approach. A derivational pattern or a
derivational affix are qualified as productive provided there are in the
word-stock dozens and hundreds of derived words built on the pattern or
with the help of the suffix in question. Thus interpreted, derivational
productivity is distinguished from word-formation activity by which is
meant the ability of an affix to produce new words, in particular
occasional words or nonce-words. For instance, the agent suffix –er is to
be qualified both as a productive and as an active suffix: on the one hand,
the English word-stock possesses hundreds of nouns containing this suffix
(e.g. writer, reaper, lover, runner, etc.), on the other hand, the suffix
–er in the pattern v + –er ( N is freely used to coin an unlimited number
of nonce-words denoting active agents (e.g. interrupter, respecter,
laugher, breakfaster, etc.).
The adjective suffix –ful is described as a productive but not as an active
one, for there are hundreds of adjectives with this suffix (e.g. beautiful,
hopeful, useful, etc.), but no new words seem to be built with its help.
For obvious reasons, the noun-suffix –th in terms of this approach is to be
regarded both as a non-productive and a non-active one.
Now let us consider the basic ways of forming words in the English
language.
Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding
derivational affixes to different types of bases. Derived words formed by
affixation may be the result of one or several applications of word-
formation rule and thus the stems of words making up a word-cluster enter
into derivational relations of different degrees. The zero degree of
derivation is ascribed to simple words, i.e. words whose stem is homonymous
with a word-form and often with a root-morpheme (e.g. atom, haste, devote,
anxious, horror, etc.). Derived words whose bases are built on simple stems
and thus are formed by the application of one derivational affix are
described as having the first degree of derivation (e.g. atomic, hasty,
devotion, etc.). Derived words formed by two consecutive stages of coining
possess the second degree of derivation (e.g. atomical, hastily,
devotional, etc.), and so forth.
In conformity with the division of derivational affixes into suffixes and
prefixes affixation is subdivided into suffixation and prefixation.
Distinction is naturally made between prefixal and suffixal derivatives
according to the last stage of derivation, which determines the nature of
the immediate constituents of the pattern that signals the relationship of
the derived word with its motivating source unit, e.g. unjust (un– + just),
justify (just + –ify), arrangement (arrange + –ment), non-smoker (non– +
smoker). Words like reappearance, unreasonable, denationalize, are often
qualified as prefixal-suffixal derivatives. R. S. Ginzburg[22] insists that
this classification is relevant only in terms of the constituent morphemes
such words are made up of, i.e. from the angle of morphemic analysis. From
the point of view of derivational analysis, such words are mostly either
suffixal or prefixal derivatives, e.g. sub-atomic = sub– + (atom + –ic),
unreasonable = un– + (reason + –able), denationalize = de– + (national +
–ize), discouragement = (dis– + courage) + –ment.
A careful study of a great many suffixal and prefixal derivatives has
revealed an essential difference between them. In Modern English,
suffixation is mostly characteristic of noun and adjective formation, while
prefixation is mostly typical of verb formation. The distinction also rests
on the role different types of meaning play in the semantic structure of
the suffix and the prefix. The part-of-speech meaning has a much greater
significance in suffixes as compared to prefixes which possess it in a
lesser degree. Due to it, a prefix may be confined to one part of speech
as, for example, enslave, encage, unbutton, or may function in more that
one part of speech as over– in overkind, overfeed, overestimation. Unlike
prefixes, suffixes as a rule function in any one part of speech often
forming a derived stem of a different part of speech as compared with that
of the base, e.g. careless – care; suitable – suit, etc. Furthermore, it is
necessary to point out that a suffix closely knit together with a base
forms a fusion retaining less of its independence that a prefix which is as
a general rule more independent semantically, e.g. reading – ‘the act of
one who reads’; ‘ability to read’; and to re-read – ‘to read again’.
Prefixation is the formation of words with the help of prefixes. The
interpretation of the terms prefix and prefixation now firmly rooted in
linguistic literature has undergone a certain evolution. For instance, some
time ago there were linguists who treated prefixation as part of word-
composition (or compounding). The greater semantic independence of prefixes
as compared with suffixes led the linguists to identify prefixes with the
first component part of a compound word.
At present the majority of scholars treat prefixation as an integral part
of word-derivation regarding prefixes as derivational affixes which differ
essentially both from root-morphemes and non-derivational prepositive
morphemes. Opinion sometimes differs concerning the interpretation of the
functional status of certain individual groups of morphemes which commonly
occur as first component parts of words. H. Marchand[23], for instance,
analyses words like to overdo, to underestimate as compound verbs, the
first component of which are locative particles, not prefixes. In a similar
way he interprets words like income, onlooker, outhouse qualifying them as
compounds with locative particles as first elements.
R. S. Ginzburg[24] states there are about 51 prefixes in the system of
Modern English word-formation.
Unlike suffixation, which is usually more closely bound up with the
paradigm of a certain part of speech, prefixation is considered to be more
neutral in this respect. It is significant that in linguistic literature
derivational suffixes are always divided into noun-forming, adjective-
forming and so on; prefixes, however, are treated differently. They are
described either in alphabetical order or sub-divided into several classes
in accordance with their origin,. Meaning or function and never according
to the part of speech.
Prefixes may be classified on different principles. Diachronically
distinction is made between prefixes of native and foreign origin.
Synchronically prefixes may be classified:
1) According to the class of words they preferably form. Recent
investigations allow one to classify prefixes according to this
principle. It must be noted that most of the 51 prefixes of Modern
English function in more than one part of speech forming different
structural and structural-semantic patterns. A small group of 5
prefixes may be referred to exclusively verb-forming (en–, be–, un–,
etc.).
2) As to the type of lexical-grammatical character of the base they are
added to into: (a) deverbal, e.g. rewrite, outstay, overdo, etc.; (b)
denominal, e.g. unbutton, detrain, ex-president, etc. and (c)
